Evolutionary and Ecological Pressures Shaping Social Wasps Collective Defenses

Abstract Social insects are well known for their aggressive (stinging) responses to a nest disturbance. Still, colonies attacked due the high-protein brood cached in nests. wasps have evolved variety of defense mechanisms exclude predators, including construction and coordinated stinging response. Which predatory pressures shaped defensive strategies displayed by social protect colonies? We reviewed literature explored media compare direct indirect (claims inferences) evidence predators attacking individuals wasps. Individual foraging predominantly preyed upon birds other arthropods, whereas on wasp vary across subfamilies Vespidae. Polistinae ants Passeriformes birds, Vespinae badgers, bears, hawks. Ants hornets primary Stenogastrinae colonies. The probability predation these five main Orders varies continents. However, biogeographical variation prey–predator trends was best predicted climate (temperate vs. tropical). In wasps’ evolutionary history, when were small, pressure likely came from small mammals, lizards, or birds. As larger size rewards increased selected more effective responses. Today, large seem be highly adapted resist avoid defense, such as mammals (which not yet present eusociality wasps), ants.